best foods for a mother breast feeding

Unlike other products that focus only on recipes or supplements, I found that the key to a good breastfeeding diet is a balanced approach. Having tested various options, I can tell you that comprehensive guides that combine dietary advice with lactogenic foods truly stand out. One such standout is Mother Food: Breastfeeding Diet Guide with Lactogenic Foods. It offers practical, research-backed tips that are easy to follow and packed with essential nutrients.

From my experience, this guide’s clear focus on lactogenic foods makes a real difference. It’s better than just snacks or cookie substitutes because it covers overall diet strategies, reducing stress for new moms. Still, if quick, tasty snacks are your priority, products like the Boobie Bar Lactation Snack Pack offer convenient, nutrient-dense options. But for a well-rounded, thorough approach, the Mother Food guide’s depth and focus make it a top choice for boosting milk supply naturally and effectively.

Top Recommendation: Mother Food: Breastfeeding Diet Guide with Lactogenic Foods

Why We Recommend It: This guide excels in providing evidence-based dietary strategies, combining practical advice with specific lactogenic foods like oats, fenugreek, and flaxseed. Unlike snack-focused options, it offers a holistic approach, making it ideal for moms seeking sustainable, nutritious support.

Best foods for a mother breast feeding: Our Top 3 Picks

• Mother Food: Breastfeeding Diet Guide with Lactogenic Foods – Best Value
• Lactation Cookies – Chocolate Chip, 10oz, Fenugreek-Free – Best Premium Option
• Boobie Bar Lactation Snack Pack, 18 Bars, 3 Flavors – Best for increasing milk supply

What Are the Best Nutrients for Breastfeeding Mothers?

The best nutrients for breastfeeding mothers are essential for both maternal health and the baby’s development.

• Protein: Protein is crucial for milk production and the overall growth and development of the baby. Sources such as lean meats, fish, eggs, and legumes provide the building blocks necessary for maintaining muscle mass and tissue repair in breastfeeding mothers.
• Calcium: Calcium supports the development of the baby’s bones and teeth while also helping to maintain the mother’s bone density. Dairy products, leafy greens, and fortified plant-based milks are excellent sources of calcium that can help meet the increased needs during breastfeeding.
• Iron: Iron is essential for preventing anemia in mothers and ensuring adequate oxygen delivery to both the mother and baby. Foods rich in iron, such as red meat, beans, lentils, and fortified cereals, should be included to help support energy levels and overall health during the breastfeeding period.
• Omega-3 Fatty Acids: Omega-3 fatty acids, particularly DHA, are vital for the baby’s brain development and can also help reduce inflammation in the mother. Fatty fish like salmon, walnuts, and flaxseeds are great sources of these essential fats that should be incorporated into a breastfeeding mother’s diet.
• Vitamins A, C, and D: These vitamins play significant roles in immune function, skin health, and calcium absorption. Foods rich in these vitamins, such as carrots, citrus fruits, and fortified dairy products, help ensure that both the mother and child receive the nutrients necessary for optimal health.
• Hydration: Staying well-hydrated is critical for maintaining milk supply and supporting overall well-being. Drinking plenty of water, herbal teas, and consuming hydrating foods like fruits and vegetables can help breastfeeding mothers meet their fluid needs.

Why Is Protein Essential for Lactation Success?

Protein is essential for lactation success because it provides the necessary building blocks for the synthesis of milk, which is crucial for the growth and development of the infant.

According to a study published in the “Journal of Nutrition,” lactating women require higher protein intake to meet the demands of milk production, as breast milk contains about 1.0-1.2 grams of protein per deciliter. This protein requirement increases significantly during breastfeeding compared to pregnancy, emphasizing the importance of consuming adequate amounts of protein-rich foods such as lean meats, dairy, legumes, and nuts (Krebs-Smith et al., 2010).

The underlying mechanism involves the role of proteins in the production of various components of breast milk, including casein and whey proteins, which are vital for the infant’s nutrition. Proteins contribute to the formation of antibodies and enzymes that not only enhance the nutritional quality of the milk but also provide immunological benefits to the infant. Additionally, protein plays a role in the hormonal regulation of lactation, with hormones like prolactin stimulating milk synthesis and secretion being influenced by the availability of amino acids derived from dietary protein intake.

How Do Healthy Fats Support Breastfeeding Health?

Healthy fats play a crucial role in supporting breastfeeding health by providing essential nutrients and energy for both the mother and the infant.

• Avocados: Avocados are rich in monounsaturated fats, which are beneficial for heart health and help in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins. They also provide a good source of potassium and fiber, contributing to overall maternal health and potentially aiding in lactation.
• Nuts and Seeds: Nuts and seeds, such as almonds, walnuts, and flaxseeds, are packed with omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, which are essential for brain development in infants. They also supply protein, fiber, and various vitamins and minerals that support a mother’s health during breastfeeding.
• Fatty Fish: Fatty fish like salmon and sardines are excellent sources of DHA (docosahexaenoic acid), a type of omega-3 fatty acid vital for the development of the baby’s brain and eyes. Additionally, these fish provide high-quality protein and can help reduce inflammation in nursing mothers.
• Coconut Oil: Coconut oil contains medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs), which are easily digestible and can provide a quick source of energy for breastfeeding mothers. It also has antimicrobial properties that may support both maternal and infant health.
• Olive Oil: Olive oil is rich in monounsaturated fats and antioxidants, making it a heart-healthy choice that can also enhance the flavor of meals. Its anti-inflammatory properties can support overall health during the breastfeeding period.
• Full-Fat Dairy: Full-fat dairy products, such as yogurt and cheese, provide not only healthy fats but also calcium and vitamin D, which are important for both mother and baby. The fats in dairy can help with the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins, contributing to better nutrition during lactation.

Which Vitamins and Minerals Are Crucial During Lactation?

During lactation, certain vitamins and minerals are essential for both the mother’s health and the quality of breast milk for the infant.

• Calcium: Calcium is vital for maintaining strong bones and teeth in both the mother and the baby. During breastfeeding, a mother’s calcium needs increase to ensure that her body can produce milk, which contains high levels of this mineral.
• Vitamin D: This vitamin aids in calcium absorption and is crucial for the baby’s bone health. Mothers should ensure adequate Vitamin D intake through sunlight exposure, fortified foods, or supplements, as it also supports the immune system.
• Iron: Iron is essential for producing hemoglobin, which carries oxygen in the blood. Lactating women are at risk for iron deficiency due to blood loss during childbirth, so including iron-rich foods is crucial for maintaining energy levels and overall health.
• Vitamin B12: Important for energy production and the formation of red blood cells, Vitamin B12 is especially crucial for vegetarian or vegan mothers, as it is primarily found in animal products. A deficiency can lead to anemia and affect the baby’s development.
• Folate: Folate, or Vitamin B9, is important for DNA synthesis and cell division. It helps prevent neural tube defects in infants, making it vital for breastfeeding mothers to consume adequate amounts through leafy greens, legumes, and fortified foods.
• Omega-3 Fatty Acids: These healthy fats, particularly DHA, are crucial for brain development in infants. Mothers can support their baby’s cognitive development by consuming fatty fish, flaxseeds, or walnuts, which provide essential Omega-3s.
• Zinc: Zinc plays a key role in immune function, cell growth, and healing processes. During lactation, zinc requirements increase to support both the mother’s health and the growth of the infant, making it important to include zinc-rich foods like meat, legumes, and whole grains.

What Foods Can Help Increase Milk Supply?

Several foods are known to help increase milk supply for breastfeeding mothers:

• Oats: Oats are rich in iron, which is essential for maintaining energy levels and supporting lactation. They are also a good source of complex carbohydrates, providing sustained energy and promoting overall health.
• Leafy Greens: Vegetables like spinach, kale, and collard greens are packed with nutrients and are believed to enhance milk production. They are high in calcium, iron, and vitamins A and C, which are beneficial for both mother and baby.
• Nuts and Seeds: Almonds, walnuts, and flaxseeds are rich in healthy fats, proteins, and omega-3 fatty acids. These nutrients support hormone production and may help improve milk supply while also providing essential energy for nursing mothers.
• Garlic: Garlic is known for its lactogenic properties and has been used for centuries to promote milk production. It contains compounds that can enhance milk flavor, possibly encouraging babies to nurse more effectively.
• Whole Grains: Quinoa, brown rice, and barley are excellent sources of fiber and nutrients that can help sustain energy levels. Whole grains are believed to support overall health and well-being, which can indirectly promote better milk supply.
• Legumes: Beans, lentils, and chickpeas are high in protein and fiber, making them great for sustaining energy and promoting satiety. They also provide essential vitamins and minerals that are beneficial during lactation.
• Fennel: Fennel seeds are often used as a galactagogue, which means they can help stimulate milk production. They contain phytoestrogens, which may mimic estrogen in the body and support breast milk supply.
• Salmon: Salmon is rich in omega-3 fatty acids and vitamin D, both of which are vital for a mother’s health and can enhance milk quality. The healthy fats in salmon help support brain development in infants and are beneficial for nursing moms.

Which Fruits and Vegetables Are Optimal for Nursing Mothers?

The best foods for a mother breastfeeding include a variety of fruits and vegetables that provide essential nutrients for both the mother and the baby.

• Leafy Greens: Spinach, kale, and Swiss chard are rich in vitamins A, C, and K, as well as calcium and iron, which are important for maintaining the mother’s health and supporting milk production.
• Avocado: Avocados are high in healthy fats, particularly monounsaturated fats, which are crucial for brain development in infants and can help nursing mothers maintain their energy levels.
• Carrots: Rich in beta-carotene, carrots can enhance the quality of breast milk and contribute to the mother’s overall vitamin A intake, promoting good eyesight and immune function for both mother and baby.
• Berries: Strawberries, blueberries, and raspberries are packed with antioxidants and vitamin C, which can help reduce inflammation and boost the immune system of both mother and child.
• Sweet Potatoes: Sweet potatoes are an excellent source of complex carbohydrates, fiber, and vitamins A and C, providing sustained energy and essential nutrients that support overall health during breastfeeding.
• Bananas: Bananas are easy to digest and rich in potassium, which can help nursing mothers replenish lost electrolytes and provide a quick energy boost, making them a convenient snack option.
• Broccoli: Broccoli is loaded with vitamins, minerals, and fiber, and its high calcium content supports the mother’s bone health while also being beneficial for the baby’s development.
• Tomatoes: Tomatoes contain lycopene, an antioxidant that is important for heart health, and they also provide vitamins C and K, which are beneficial for both the mother and baby.

How Do Whole Grains Benefit Breastfeeding Diet?

Whole grains provide essential nutrients that support both breastfeeding mothers and their infants.

• High in Fiber: Whole grains are rich in dietary fiber, which aids digestion and helps prevent constipation, a common issue for new mothers. This fiber can also help maintain healthy blood sugar levels, providing sustained energy throughout the day.
• Rich in Vitamins and Minerals: Whole grains contain important vitamins and minerals, including B vitamins (such as folate), iron, magnesium, and selenium. These nutrients are crucial for maintaining a healthy metabolism and can contribute to optimal milk production.
• Source of Complex Carbohydrates: Whole grains provide complex carbohydrates that are a vital source of energy. This is particularly beneficial for breastfeeding mothers who require additional calories to support both their own health and milk production.
• Protein Content: Many whole grains contain a moderate amount of protein, which is essential for tissue repair and growth. Consuming adequate protein is vital for mothers to recover from childbirth and to support their overall health during the breastfeeding period.
• Healthy Fats: Some whole grains, such as oats and quinoa, also contain healthy fats that are important for brain development in infants. Including these grains in a breastfeeding diet can help ensure that both mother and baby receive essential fatty acids necessary for health.

Why Are Dairy Products Important for Lactating Women?

Dairy products are important for lactating women because they provide essential nutrients that support both maternal health and the nutritional needs of the breastfeeding infant, particularly calcium, protein, and vitamin D.

According to the American Academy of Pediatrics, adequate calcium intake is crucial during lactation to maintain maternal bone health and ensure sufficient calcium is available in breast milk for the developing infant (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2012). Women require about 1,000 mg of calcium daily during this period, and dairy products are one of the most bioavailable sources of this essential mineral.

The underlying mechanism involves the body’s adaptation to breastfeeding demands. When a mother breastfeeds, calcium is transported through the bloodstream to the mammary glands, where it is secreted into breast milk. If a lactating woman does not consume enough calcium, her body compensates by drawing calcium from her bones, which can lead to decreased bone density over time (Weaver et al., 2016). Additionally, dairy products provide high-quality protein necessary for the production of antibodies and other components vital for the infant’s immune system development, further highlighting their importance in the diet of breastfeeding mothers.

What Foods Should Breastfeeding Mothers Avoid?

Breastfeeding mothers should be mindful of certain foods that may affect their baby or their own health.

• Alcohol: Consuming alcohol can pass into breast milk and potentially affect the baby’s development and sleep patterns. It is recommended that breastfeeding mothers limit alcohol intake and wait at least two hours after drinking before nursing.
• Caffeine: High levels of caffeine can lead to increased irritability and sleep disturbances in infants. While moderate caffeine consumption (about 300 mg per day) is generally considered safe, mothers should monitor their intake to ensure it does not negatively impact their baby.
• Fish high in mercury: Certain fish, such as shark, swordfish, and king mackerel, contain high levels of mercury, which can be harmful to an infant’s developing nervous system. It is advisable for breastfeeding mothers to choose lower-mercury options like salmon or sardines and limit their intake of high-mercury fish.
• Spicy foods: While not harmful to all babies, some infants may be sensitive to spicy foods, leading to fussiness or gastrointestinal upset. Mothers should observe their baby’s reactions to their diet and adjust accordingly if spicy foods seem to cause discomfort.
• Dairy products: Some breastfeeding infants may develop allergies or sensitivities to dairy, leading to symptoms like colic or rashes. If a mother notices such symptoms in her baby, it may be beneficial to eliminate dairy from her diet temporarily to assess if it makes a difference.
• Processed foods: Foods high in additives, preservatives, and sugars can affect a mother’s health and may also influence the quality of breast milk. A diet rich in whole foods is recommended for optimal nutrition for both mother and baby.

Why Is It Important to Limit Caffeine and Alcohol Intake?

It is important to limit caffeine and alcohol intake during breastfeeding because both substances can affect the quality of breast milk and potentially impact the infant’s development.

According to the American Academy of Pediatrics, moderate caffeine consumption (about 300 mg per day) is generally considered safe for breastfeeding mothers; however, excessive intake can lead to irritability and sleep disturbances in infants. Alcohol, on the other hand, can pass into breast milk and affect a baby’s motor skills and cognitive development, with even small amounts being detectable in breast milk within 30 to 60 minutes after consumption.

The underlying mechanism involves the way these substances are metabolized in the body. Caffeine is a stimulant that can increase heart rate and lead to heightened alertness, but in infants, whose liver enzymes are not fully developed, it may take much longer to process caffeine, leading to potential side effects. Alcohol, while it may initially seem to have a calming effect, can disrupt a baby’s sleep patterns and interfere with breastfeeding frequency and duration, as it can reduce milk production and alter the milk’s nutritional profile. The presence of these substances in breast milk can thus have direct implications for an infant’s health and well-being.

Can Common Allergens in Food Affect My Baby?

Yes, common allergens in food can affect your baby.

When a breastfeeding mother consumes foods that contain common allergens such as dairy, peanuts, tree nuts, soy, wheat, fish, or shellfish, these proteins can be passed through breast milk to the baby. In some cases, if the baby has a sensitivity or allergy to these foods, it may result in symptoms like rashes, gastrointestinal discomfort, or respiratory issues. This is particularly important to consider if there is a family history of food allergies, as genetics can play a significant role in a child’s predisposition to allergies.

It is advisable for breastfeeding mothers to be mindful of their diet and observe any reactions their babies may have after breastfeeding. If a mother suspects that her diet may be affecting her baby, she should consult with a healthcare provider or a pediatrician. They may recommend keeping a food diary or eliminating certain foods to identify potential allergens. This careful monitoring can help ensure both the mother’s and baby’s health while breastfeeding.

How Important Is Hydration for Breastfeeding Mothers?

• Water: Staying hydrated with adequate water intake is essential, as it directly impacts milk supply. Breastfeeding can increase a mother’s fluid needs, so drinking plenty of water throughout the day helps maintain hydration levels and ensures optimal milk production.
• Herbal Teas: Herbal teas, such as fenugreek or peppermint, can be beneficial for breastfeeding mothers. These teas not only provide hydration but certain herbs may also support lactation and digestion, making them a soothing option for mothers.
• Fruits and Vegetables: Foods with high water content, such as cucumbers, oranges, and watermelon, can contribute to hydration. Including these foods in the diet not only keeps hydration levels up but also provides essential vitamins and minerals that are important for both mother and baby.
• Broths and Soups: Broths and soups are excellent sources of hydration and nourishment. They are easy to digest and can provide vital nutrients, especially when made with vegetables, grains, and lean proteins, further supporting a breastfeeding mother’s health.
• Electrolyte Drinks: Occasionally, electrolyte drinks can help replenish lost fluids and minerals, especially during hot weather or after physical activity. Opting for natural versions without excessive sugar can be a good way to stay hydrated while ensuring the body has the necessary salts for balance.

What Are the Best Beverages to Stay Hydrated While Breastfeeding?

The best beverages for staying hydrated while breastfeeding include:

• Water: Water is the most essential beverage for hydration, especially for breastfeeding mothers. It helps maintain milk production and ensures that the body remains well-hydrated, which is crucial for both the mother’s and baby’s health.
• Coconut Water: Coconut water is a natural electrolyte drink that replenishes fluids and minerals lost during breastfeeding. It is low in calories and packed with potassium, making it a refreshing option for hydration.
• Herbal Teas: Herbal teas, such as chamomile or peppermint, can be soothing and contribute to hydration. It is important to select caffeine-free varieties to avoid affecting the baby and to opt for teas that are generally considered safe during lactation.
• Milk: Milk is a good source of hydration and provides essential nutrients like calcium and protein, which are beneficial for postpartum recovery. Consuming low-fat or non-fat milk can help maintain healthy weight while still nurturing the body.
• Fresh Fruit Juices: Freshly squeezed fruit juices, particularly those high in water content like watermelon or cucumber juice, can be hydrating and nutritious. However, it’s advisable to consume them in moderation due to their sugar content.
• Broth: Broth or clear soups serve as an excellent source of hydration while also providing nutrients and electrolytes. Bone broth, in particular, is rich in minerals and can help support recovery during the postpartum period.
• Electrolyte Drinks: Electrolyte drinks, especially those low in sugar, can be beneficial for hydration, particularly in hot weather or after exercise. They help replenish lost minerals and maintain fluid balance, which is vital for breastfeeding mothers.

What Are Some Healthy Snack Options for Breastfeeding Moms?

Some of the best foods for a mother breastfeeding include nutrient-dense options that help maintain energy levels and support milk production.

• Oatmeal: Oatmeal is rich in fiber and can help boost milk supply. It is also a great source of carbohydrates, providing sustained energy throughout the day, which is especially important for new mothers.
• Greek Yogurt: Packed with protein and probiotics, Greek yogurt helps in muscle recovery and supports gut health. Its calcium content is beneficial for both the mother and the breastfeeding baby, ensuring strong bones.
• Nuts and Seeds: Nuts and seeds, such as almonds and flaxseeds, are excellent sources of healthy fats, protein, and essential nutrients like omega-3 fatty acids. They provide a quick and convenient snack option that can help with satiety and energy levels.
• Fruits and Vegetables: Fresh fruits and vegetables are rich in vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. They are low in calories and high in fiber, making them ideal for snacking while also promoting hydration and overall health.
• Whole Grain Crackers: Whole grain crackers are a good source of complex carbohydrates and fiber. They can be paired with nut butter or cheese for added protein, making them a satisfying snack that supports energy needs during breastfeeding.
• Hummus: Hummus, made from chickpeas, is high in protein and fiber. It can be enjoyed with veggies or whole grain pita, providing a nutritious and filling option that is easy to prepare and transport.
• Smoothies: Smoothies made with fruits, vegetables, yogurt, and seeds can be a great way to pack in nutrients. They are versatile and can be customized to include ingredients that specifically support lactation and energy levels.
• Eggs: Eggs are a complete protein source and are rich in vitamins such as B12 and D. They are versatile, easy to prepare, and can help keep hunger at bay while providing essential nutrients for breastfeeding mothers.

How Can Quick and Nutritious Snacks Benefit Nursing Mothers?

• Oatmeal: Oatmeal is a great source of fiber and can help boost milk supply due to its galactagogue properties. It’s easy to prepare and can be customized with fruits, nuts, or yogurt for added nutrition.
• Greek Yogurt: High in protein and calcium, Greek yogurt supports muscle recovery and bone health for nursing mothers. It also contains probiotics that can aid digestion and improve gut health.
• Nuts and Seeds: Nuts and seeds are rich in healthy fats, protein, and vitamins, making them an excellent snack for sustained energy. They are also convenient to grab on-the-go and can be mixed into various dishes for added crunch.
• Hummus with Vegetables: Hummus is a healthy source of plant-based protein and fiber, and when paired with fresh vegetables, it provides essential vitamins and minerals. This snack is not only nutritious but also helps maintain hydration, which is crucial during breastfeeding.
• Fruit Smoothies: Smoothies made with fresh fruits, vegetables, and yogurt or milk can pack a nutrient-rich punch and are easy to digest. They can be tailored to a mother’s taste and can include ingredients that boost energy and hydration.
• Whole Grain Crackers with Nut Butter: Whole grain crackers topped with almond or peanut butter provide a balance of carbohydrates and healthy fats. This combination can help keep energy levels stable and satiate hunger effectively.
• Cheese Sticks: Cheese sticks are a portable source of calcium and protein, making them an ideal snack for busy nursing mothers. They can be eaten alone or paired with fruits for a balanced snack.

What Misconceptions About Breastfeeding and Diet Should Mothers Know?

There are several misconceptions about breastfeeding and diet that mothers should be aware of:

• Myth: Mothers must follow a restrictive diet. Many believe that breastfeeding mothers need to avoid certain foods to prevent allergic reactions in their babies. However, research shows that most mothers can consume a wide variety of foods without negatively impacting their milk or causing allergies in infants.
• Myth: Spicy foods will upset the baby. Some mothers worry that eating spicy foods might irritate their baby’s digestive system. In reality, studies have indicated that babies can tolerate and even benefit from exposure to different flavors through breast milk, which can help develop their taste preferences.
• Myth: You need to eat twice as much when breastfeeding. It’s a common belief that breastfeeding mothers must double their caloric intake. While increased caloric needs are real, most women only require an additional 300-500 calories a day, focusing on nutrient-dense foods rather than merely increasing portion sizes.
• Myth: Certain foods will increase milk supply significantly. Many mothers seek specific foods or supplements to boost milk production, such as oatmeal or fenugreek. While some foods may support a healthy diet, the key factors for milk supply are adequate hydration, overall nutrition, and effective breastfeeding techniques.
• Myth: Caffeine must be completely avoided. There’s a belief that caffeine should be entirely eliminated from a breastfeeding mother’s diet. However, moderate caffeine consumption (about 300 mg per day) is generally considered safe and does not adversely affect breast milk or the baby’s behavior.

How Can Misinformation Impact a Mother’s Diet Choices?

Misinformation can significantly affect a mother’s dietary choices during breastfeeding by leading to the adoption of incorrect beliefs about nutrition and food safety.

• Beliefs About Food Restrictions: Many mothers may encounter misinformation suggesting that certain foods must be strictly avoided while breastfeeding, which can lead to unnecessary dietary restrictions. This can limit the variety of nutrients they receive, potentially impacting both their health and their milk quality.
• Misunderstandings About Nutritional Needs: Some sources may incorrectly claim that breastfeeding mothers do not need additional calories or specific nutrients, which can lead to inadequate nutrition. In reality, breastfeeding requires increased caloric and nutrient intake to support both the mother’s health and milk production.
• Confusion Over Food Safety: Misinformation regarding the safety of certain foods can result in mothers avoiding healthy options that are actually safe and beneficial for breastfeeding. For instance, misconceptions about seafood or dairy can deprive mothers of essential omega-3 fatty acids or calcium, which are important for both their health and their baby’s development.
• Inaccurate Claims About Supplements: There is often confusion surrounding the necessity and efficacy of supplements during breastfeeding, with some misinformation suggesting that they are not needed. However, certain vitamins and minerals, such as vitamin D and omega-3s, may be necessary for mothers who cannot get enough from their diet alone.
• Pressure to Follow Trends: Misinformation can also lead mothers to adopt trendy diets that may not be suitable for breastfeeding, such as restrictive or fad diets. These diets can compromise the quality of breast milk and may not provide the necessary nutrients for both mother and baby.

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